FINANCIAL GLOBALIZATION AND FINANCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN TRANSITION COUNTRIES ♦

This paper examines the impact of fi nancial globalization on fi nancial development in transition countries. An empirical test is elaborated with new indicators of fi nancial globalization and fi nancial development, closer to theoretical and conceptual framework. On the basis of Blundell and Bond (1998) a dynamic panel data model is employed. The principal results suggest, in general, that fi nancial globalization has a positive and signifi cant relationship with the process of growth of the fi nancial system, but not with the process of development, that is to say, without a better performance of basic fi nancial functions.


INTRODUCTION
The international fl ows of capital augmented notably in the last three decades, particularly, after 1987 most of the countries liberated their capital account.Transition countries, especially members of European Union and accession candidates, had progressed signifi cantly into the fi nancial globalization, and for this purpose their fi nancial systems are key factors to get benefi ts and to withstand the risks associated with the globalization.Under these conditions, the literature is motivated by the question: does fi nancial globalization cause fi nancial development?
Notwithstanding fi nancial crises, economic literature argues theoretically and empirically that globalization promotes fi nancial development because it allows to fi nancial systems a better performance in their basic functions.Financial globalization reduces the power of interest groups (who are opposed to the development of the fi nancial system) and it permits the adaptation of the institutional structure, in favor of the best practices and fi nancial innovations.
Financial development favors larger rates of growth and economic development, because it has an infl uence over saving decisions and investment (Levine, 2005;Ang, 2008).In consequence, it is relevant to know what determines fi nancial development.There is a body of research that examines fi nancial globalization shaping fi nancial development; this nexus in transition countries is the main topic of this paper.
It is worth noticing that fi nancial system is a channel through which fi nancial globalization can infl uence growth and economic development, therefore, that relationship deserves direct theoretical, empirical and analytical attention.
The paper is as follows: Section 1 discusses shortly the theoretical relationship between fi nancial globalization and fi nancial development, with special attention to impacts on basic fi nancial functions.Also, it describes previous empirical studies and their main results.Section 2 specifi es the econometric model, a dynamic panel data based on Blundell and Bond (1998) and describes the data sets (sample of transition countries).Section 3 reports and discusses the econometric results.Finally, it presents conclusions.

FINANCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND GLOBALIZATION
For mainstream economists there are no doubts about the potential advantages of fi nancial globalization.As Obstfeld (2008: 2) points out that "over the longer term, an internationally open fi nancial system is likely to be more competitive, transparent, and effi cient than a closed one".Free capital mobility implies an effi cient allocation of resources on a global scale. 1ut, growth economics rates in the last 30 years had been smaller than in the 60s and 70s.Prasad, Rajan and Subramanian (2007) did not fi nd evidence that an increase in foreign capital infl ows implies a quicker economic growth.Also, the fi nancial uncertainty is a characteristic of the current globalization.The underdeveloped countries, especially, suffered fi nancial crisis: Mexico in 1994-1995, Asia in 1997, Russia in 1998, Brazil in 1998-1999, Argentina in 2000-2001 and recently the United States in 2007-2008and Europe in 2011. .It is obvious that fi nancial crises, and their easy infection, are the main warning signals against fi nancial globalization.But, Bailliu (2000), Eichengreen and Leblang (2003) and Bekaert, Harvey and Lundblad (2005) argue that the impact on economic development of fi nancial globalization will be positive if countries have a developed and good regulated fi nancial system.Under these conditions, the allocation of capital will be effi cient and the incidence of fi nancial crises will be smaller.
A fi nancial system is formed by organizations (banks, central bank and other fi nancial intermediaries), a fi nancial market and an institutional framework (formal and informal institutions; laws, rules, regulations, customs, culture, etc.).According to the classifi cation of Levine (1997 and2005), a fi nancial system has fi ve basic functions: 1) To produce information ex ante about possible investments and allocate capital, 2) To monitor investments and exert corporate governance after providing funds, 3) To facilitate the trading, diversifi cation, and management of risk, 4) To mobilize and pool savings, and 5) To ease the exchange of goods and services.A better performance of the functions indicates a larger fi nancial development.
In the world there are fi nancial systems more developed than others, that is to say, fi nancial systems that perform basic functions better (more effi ciently) than others, and thanks to fi nancial globalization it is possible to import a developed fi nancial system, through a process of catching up.Rajan and Zingales (2003) support the hypothesis that fi nancial systems are not developed because there are interest groups (incumbents) that oppose fi nancial development because it harms their power and benefi ts.But, fi nancial and trade openness weaken these interest groups, because the external agents press the national fi nancial system to perform better their basic functions (through competition).Besides, when an economic agent invests in another country it is supposed that he also transfers fi nancial technology and innovations.Financial globalization chooses the most productive technology (Saint Paul, 1992 as cited in De Gregorio, 1999).
Analyzing fi nancial globalization and each one of the basic functions that a fi nancial system should perform to get a higher level of fi nancial development, it is feasible to hope: First, fi nancial globalization will destroy private and privileged information in the fi nancial markets of the interest groups, because the fi nancial system (their organizations, institutions and the own market) will spread all available information, as a result of confrontation and new demands of the external economic agents, who are not subordinated to interest groups.Specifi cally, the participation of external economic agents generates competition among them and with local agents and in that way it is achievable to produce more truthful and deeper information about domestic fi nancial market conditions.On the contrary, if external economic agents are interested in collusion and cooperation with domestic interest groups, the fi nancial system will not be able to give all available information to all agents.
Second, with fi nancial globalization it is feasible that the best practices and methods of fi nancial supervision spread around the world and improve corporate governance.Morck and Steier (2005) point out that, contrary to the United States, most of the capitalist countries have corporations with a pyramidal organization that belong to the richest families, therefore, the allocation of capital responds to these interest groups and their arrangements with the state.But, the arrival of external economic agents will confront bad decisions in allocation of capital of the interest groups, assessing fi rms and monitoring managers, and then they will improve corporate governance (Levine, 2002).On the contrary, Shleifer and Vishny (1986) argue that the liberalization can weaken corporate control, because it reduces the incentives of shareholders, thanks to more liquidity, to supervise borrowers and managers.
Third, fi nancial globalization favors risk diversifi cation.This is obvious on a global scale, because domestic economic agents can share risks with foreign agents in domestic and foreign fi nancial markets.This way, in a peak time a country can lend to the foreigner, and in a recession, it can borrow, which helps to mitigate the impacts up and down on the income level, and in consequence, also in consumption and investment.Obstfeld (1994) argues that international risk diversifi cation allows the world economy to move from a portfolio with low risk and low returns to one with higher risk and higher returns.In addition, fi nancial contracts that favor risk diversifi cation will spread in all countries.On the contrary, if agents prefer domestic assets, nontradable goods and international trade has high transaction costs, the incentives to international diversifi cation of risk could decrease.Also, if international fi nancial markets are incomplete, with the risk of a unstable exchange rate and expropriations, there is not any insurance against all future contingencies (Kose, Prasad and Terrones, 2007).
Fourth, if capitals fl ow freely around the world, it will favor mobilization and pooling of savings on a global scale.Domestic savings will be able to seek foreign fi nancial markets, looking for better returns, and the domestic fi nancial market will have to improve methods to pool savings, as a result of international competition.Furthermore, it is supposed that external saving does not substitute domestic saving.On the contrary, if fi nancial globalization offers better protection against uncertainty, this may in fact lower the needs to save for the future, which might lead to a better stock market without an increase in savings (Devereux andSmith, 1994, as cited in Naceur Ghazouani andOmran 2008: 677).
Fifth, fi nancial globalization reduces international transaction costs and it favors a global relationship between fi nancial and real sector.In others words, globalization facilitates exchanges in the real economy on a global scale.

ANALYSIS OF THE PREVIOUS EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE
The fi nancial globalization-fi nancial development nexus has specially been approached in empirical studies.Levine andZervos (1998), De Gregorio (1999) and Klein and Olivei (2001) were the fi rst to examine this nexus, shortly after Chinn andIto (2002 and2006) discussed the nexus with the introduction of institutional variables.Later on, Law and Demetriades (2006), Huang W. (2006), Calderón and Kubota (2009), Law (2009) and Baltagi, Demetriades and Law (2009) extended the literature, especially they used econometrics models with a sample of developed and underdeveloped countries.
There are few case studies or methodologies applied to special groups of countries, Naceur et al. (2008) analyzed a sample of 11 countries of the Middle East and North Africa region, Ito (2006) put special attention on 15 Asian countries, Ahn (2008) analyzed Korea, andLaw (2008) studied Malaysia.
Financial development, as a dependent variable, has been approached principally with indicators of credit (liquid liabilities over GDP and private credit over GDP) and with indicators of the stock market (stock market capitalization, stock market total value as a ratio of GDP, and stock market turnover).
Rarely, literature uses the neologism "fi nancial globalization".The studies especially talk about fi nancial openness like an explanatory variable of fi nan-cial development, and the main indicators to approach this variable are based upon the IMF's categorical enumeration reported in Annual Report on Exchange Arrangements and Exchange Restrictions (AREAER).Few studies employ the international fl ows of capital or some measure of fi nancial integration.
The econometric models used to evaluate the fi nancial globalization-fi nancial development nexus have improved with the time.In the beginning, studies employed more graphic analysis and least squares (LS), later models with panel data (DP) and recently dynamic panel data and generalized method of moments (GMM).The regressions are controlled with income level, infl ation and trade openness.Chinn and Ito (2002) were the fi rst to take account of institutional variables, according to La Porta, Lopez-of-Silanes, Shleifer and Vishny (1998), who highlight that institutional framework is an important factor to explain fi nancial development.
In general, the results of the empirical tests suggest a positive effect of fi nancial globalization on fi nancial development, especially in developed countries.In the case of underdeveloped countries the evidence is mixed, but the positive effect is found in samples of emerging economies.In addition, the results, after inclusion of institutional variables, suggest that the impact of fi nancial globalization on fi nancial development will be positive if a country has a good quality of institutional structure.Buiter and Taci (2003) employed a graphic analysis and least squares to investigate transition countries.They found a positive relationship between legal transition and private sector credit (% of GDP), progress in banking sector reform, share of foreign bank ownership (% of total assets), privatization and stock market capitalization (% of GDP).They concluded that "more than ten years of transition have brought signifi cant progress in restructuring and developing the fi nancial sector in most (but not all) transition countries" (p.34).But, in times of international capital fl ows, the challenges are related to institutional framework and corporate governance.2

EMPIRICAL SPECIFICATION
Recently, the main econometric methodology to study the fi nancial globalization -fi nancial development nexus is the dynamic GMM estimator developed by Are-llano and Bond (1991), but if the autoregressive parameter is moderately large (around 1) and the number of time series observations is moderately small, the estimators obtained have bias and poor precision.The sample of transition countries has not small time series observations (see section 3.2), but the autoregressive parameters obtained by Arellano and Bond (1991) showed values between 0.12 and 0.98.3Therefore, this investigation employed the methodology developed by Blundell and Bond (1998), they review the importance of using the initial condition in generating effi cient estimators of the dynamic panel data model.
The model has different levels, it allows lagged values of a dependent variable to enter as regressors, and it provides a better control of endogeneity for all explanatory variables because it use lags of variables like instruments (in fi rst differences and levels). 4In addition, the explanatory variables are entered in logarithms5 and with a lag to prevent simultaneity and reverse causality (see equation 1).
where FD is a measure of fi nancial development, FG is a measure of fi nancial globalization and X is a vector of control variables: log per capita GDP (constant 2 000 US$) (GDP), the infl ation rate (INFLA) and log trade openness (XM) measured as the ratio of the sum of exports and imports to GDP. 7 D1 is a dummy variable: Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) countries (1) and otherwise (0).The fundamental interesting hypothesis is that fi nancial development depends positively upon the level of fi nancial globalization.Also, fi nancial development depends positively upon a series of control variables (except the infl ation rate).
2.1 SOME NOTES ABOUT PANEL DATA Chinn andIto (2002: 4-5 and2006) argue that it is diffi cult to control secular trends in fi nancial deepening in the context of the panel regression in levels with annual frequency, due to the large cyclical variations in the fi nancial deepening variables, along with trending behavior of the explanatory variables.Their solution is to use the average annual growth rate over a fi ve year period; in order to avoid problems of endogeneity associated with short term cyclical effects (other studies used the same strategy).
Nevertheless, this study uses a panel data with annual frequency (W.Huang, 2006, Naceur et al. 2008, Calderon and Kubota, 2009, and Baltagi et al. 2009 also used annual frequency), in order to use all available information.Furthermore, it is feasible to think that the recurrent variations in the fi nancial markets behave according to random walks model, and if there are bubbles, they are rational and a consequence of the normal cycle of business (Fama, 1965 and1991), and fi nancial globalization has to move according to these cycles.In other words, the cycles are a part of interest of this analysis.
It is worth noticing that fi nancial markets, interest rates and international capital fl ows, move quickly every day (or at least in the short term), then we fi nd daily adjustments.Therefore, data of annual frequency that correspond to a daily behavior should be enough to mitigate the abrupt movements in relation to the explanatory variables. 8

DATA, MEASUREMENT AND SOURCES
The data are drawn from the World Bank's World Development Indicators (WDI) 2005 and 2008, and the databases associated with Beck, Demirgüç-Kunt and Leriables do not change signifi cantly in the time, and there are not good indicators of institutional levels for transition countries; so it is better to assume that these countries have similar levels of institutional development, therefore, investigation does not include institutional variables.
8 Baltagi et al. (2009) argue that fi nancial development indicators are considerably persistent and dependent on history, so, they used a logarithmic transformation, like in this paper.
vine (2009).The analysis is based upon data recorded at an annual frequency, over the 1995-2008 period, covering 26 transition countries.Details are reported in Appendix, table A3 resumes descriptive statistics, table A4 shows a correlation matrix and fi gure A1 shows a line graphics of means.

Indicators of fi nancial development
In the literature, the main indicators to approach fi nancial development are measures of credit and stock market, other fi nancial intermediaries such as pension funds and insurance companies are underestimated and the informal fi nancial sector is omitted.Levine (2005) points out that the main problem in empirical studies are the proxies for fi nancial development, they do not frequently measure very accurately the concepts emerging from theory.Empirically, it has been showed that high levels in ratio M2/GDP or credit/GDP do not necessarily imply a developed fi nancial system (Ang, 2008).
Under the conditions described above, this investigation uses six measures of fi nancial growth, three of them approach credit and size of the fi nancial system: 1) liquid liabilities over GDP (LLY), 2) private credit by deposit money banks and other fi nancial institutions over GDP (PCFS) and, 3) fi nancial system deposits over GDP (FSD).In the appendix table A3 shows that the mean and the median of these indicators are close, and have a small standard deviation, so the majority of transition countries have similar rates.Hungary, Bulgaria, Croatia, and Slovak Republic have high rates, but Czech Republic has the best performance: 0.66 (LLY), 0.47 (PCFS) and 0.58 (FSD), just to compare, Russia has 0.25, 0.17 and 0.18, and USA has 0.67, 1.71 and 0.65, respectively (means of the same period, [1995][1996][1997][1998][1999][2000][2001][2002][2003][2004][2005][2006][2007][2008]. Other three measures are associated with the stock market: 1) stock market capitalization over GDP (STMK), 2) stock market total value traded over GDP (STTV) and, 3) stock market turnover ratio (STTR).Transition countries have dissimilar rates, the means and the medians are substantially different, and have a large standard deviation (see table 3).Small countries have not information (have not markets).Estonia, Poland, Hungary, and Czech Republic have the highest rates, although Russia has the best performance; 0.42 (STMK), 0.17 (STTV) and 0.32 (STTR), USA has 1.32, 2.09 and 1.51, respectively.9 In addition, the investigation uses other four measures to approach with more fi delity the fi nancial development, because they approach four of the fi ve basic functions of the fi nancial system. 10The fi rst of them is bank concentration (In-forma), the assets of the three largest banks as a share of assets of all commercial banks. 11It is a measure of competition, and for mainstream economists, to more competition correspond prices that refl ect all available information more faithfully.12Therefore, this indicator approaches the fi rst function of the fi nancial system: provide more and better information.
Transition countries have similar rates of bank concentration, the mean is 0.70 and the standard deviation is 0.18 (see table A3), the best performance corresponds to Russia (0.35), but CIS countries usually have a high bank concentration (low competition), USA has 0.25.
This investigation uses deposit money bank assets over (deposit money + central) bank assets (Control), as a measure of the relative importance of commercial vis-à-vis the central bank."Countries where deposit money banks have a larger role in fi nancial intermediation than central banks can be considered as having higher levels of fi nancial development" (Beck et al., 2009: 7).In addition, "it proxies the advantage of fi nancial intermediaries in channelling savings to investment, monitoring fi rms, infl uencing corporate governance and undertaking risk management relative to the central bank" (Y.Huang, 2005: 13).Therefore, Control is a proxy of the second function of the fi nancial system.
Transition countries have similar rates of Control, the mean is 0.83 and the standard deviation is 0.20 (see table A3), USA has a mean of 0.92.Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Serbia, Croatia, Poland, Slovak Republic and Czech Republic have a very good performance (close to 1).
The third function of the fi nancial system, diversifi cation of risk, is approached on the basis of studies that relate consumption growth variability to diversifi cation of risk.Particularly, based on the studies of Prasad et al. (2003), Bekaert et al. (2006) and Kose et al. (2007), this investigation uses fl uctuations in consumption over income.First, it is calculated the growth in real consumption for country i between year t and t+1, then it is defi ned the growth rate variability, as the standard deviation of the consumption growth rate estimated over fi ve years.The same is calculated for GDP.The indicator RISK is consumption growth rate variability over GDP growth rate variability, if it is smaller implies a bigger goods and services).
11 Herfi ndahl-Hirschman is another popular index of concentration, but it was not possible to estimate it because the information about the number of banks was not available for these countries over the period of analysis.diversifi cation of risk.In this case, transition countries have a large variance, the mean is 2.06, the median is 1.33 and the standard deviation is 2.73 (see table A3).USA has a mean of 0.83 and Russia, Romania and Slovak Republic have rates close to 1.
The fourth indicator is bank credit over bank deposits (SAVE) that approaches the ability of banks in channeling savings of the society toward private sector.In consequence, it approaches the fourth function of the fi nancial system: to mobilize and pool savings.The mean is 1.33 and the standard deviation is 2.20, so transition countries have dissimilar performance.USA has a mean of 0.79, 13 Bosnia and Herzegovina has the largest rate (7.19), and other interesting countries are: Serbia (1.91), Estonia (1.54), Georgia (1.49), Latvia (1.41), Kazakhstan (1.38) and Russia (0.96).

Indicators of fi nancial globalization
Literature usually approaches fi nancial globalization with indicators of fi nancial openness; many measures have been designed and it is diffi cult to fi nd one that satisfi es completely.The main discussion disputes if they are measures de facto (related with facts, for example capital fl ows) or measures de jure (related with policies, for example policies of capital controls). 14The main problem in samples of transition countries is that measures de jure are not available over a long period. 15inancial openness is an important characteristic of fi nancial globalization, but the magnitude of international fl ows of capital is the basic refl ection of it.Foreign currencies, stocks, bonds and other fi nancial instruments are moving around the world like never before.This way, to measure fi nancial globalization it is necessary to know how large those fl ows are.This investigation uses gross private capital fl ows as a ratio to GDP (FLOW), the sum of the absolute values of direct, portfolio, and other investment infl ows and outfl ows recorded in the fi nancial account of the balance of payments, excluding changes in the assets and liabilities of monetary authorities and general government.The mean of the transition countries is 18.7 and the standard deviation is 13.56, USA has a mean of 13.41, 16 Azerbaijan 41.69, Estonia 35.81, Latvia 28.14, Hungary 24.67, Croatia 23.08 and Czech Republic 21.15.Also, fi nancial globalization implies a process of fi nancial interdependence.If goods, services and factors of production can move freely among countries, then the market should balance their prices, refl ecting the process of economic interdependence and integration.The price of capital is the interest rate and if capital can move freely among countries, their interest rates should converge (Obstfeld and Taylor, 2003). 17o measure the convergence process, this study employs the variable integration of real interest rate (Intere) calculated subtracting the interest rate of a country less the reference interest rate (average of the G7, United States, Canada, England, Italy, France, Japan and Germany) in absolute terms.When this difference is closer to zero, the integration and fi nancial globalization are larger. 18ransition countries have a mean of 9.54 and standard deviation of 13.13, Hungary has a very good integration (2.17), other interesting countries are: Czech Republic (2.37), Slovak Republic (3.25), Latvia (3.76), Croatia (4.27), Estonia (4.37),Poland (4.85) and Lithuania (5.56).

EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS AND ESTIMATION RESULTS
This paper contributes to the empirical literature in several ways.First, it approaches the fi nancial globalization -fi nancial development nexus using two indicators of fi nancial globalization, each one measures a substantial part of globalization, instead of discussing if they are indicators de facto or de jure.Second, besides the typical measures of fi nancial deepening, this paper uses four indicators to approach in a better way the basic functions of the fi nancial system; therefore, they are better indicators of fi nancial development.Finally, the econometric test includes a sample of transition countries that had been not used before.
Tables 1 and 2 summarize the main results of the estimation of the model [1], it was transformed to include the different measures of fi nancial globalization.In columns there are dependent variables and in rows the explanatory variables.It is worth noticing that a dynamic panel is justifi ed, because the dependent variables, as regressors, have statistical signifi cant coeffi cients.Sargan tests do not manifest inconveniences with the used instruments, however, the second order serial cor-relation tests show problems in some cases, consequently those results must be treated with a fair amount of caution. 19

INTERNATIONAL CAPITAL FLOWS AND FINANCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Equation [2] shows the transformation of the model [1], to use as a measure of fi nancial globalization the indicator FLOW (gross private capital fl ows).
[2] 19 The model was transformed in different forms, but it was not possible to correct the problem, and like Baltagi et al. (2009: 292), the solution is to notify.1995-2006 1995-2006 1995-2006 1995-2006 1995-2006 1995-2006 1995-2006 1995-2006 1995-2006 1995 Regressions are estimated using the Dynamic GMM estimator (Blundell and Bond, 1998) Table 1 presents the main results.The capital fl ows enter with positive and statistically signifi cant coeffi cient at the 10% and 5% level in the case of PCFS and DSF (indicators of credit and size of the fi nancial system), and at the 1% level in the case of STTV and STTR, (indicators of growth of the stock market).
FLOW enters with negative and statistically signifi cant coeffi cient at the 1% level in the case of Control, the proxy variable of the second function of the financial system, consequently the capital fl ows are positive related with fi nancial systems where the banks have a smaller role in fi nancial intermediation than central banks, for that reason it is possible to expect a weak corporate governance in transition countries.On the other hand, FLOW mobilizes and pools savings (the coeffi cient is positive and statistically signifi cant at the 5% level).There is not evidence of any signifi cant relationship with the rest of indicators.
Trade openness (XM) does not have the predicted sign and signifi cant coeffi cients in the case of STMK, STTV and Informa, it has positive and signifi cant coeffi cient with Control, and it has no other signifi cant relations.Therefore, the evidence suggests that trade openness does not favor the stock market if it is accompanied with bank concentration, and subsequently, with poor information about market conditions.But it encourages fi nancial systems where banks have a larger role in fi nancial intermediation than central banks.
The control variable GDP has few signifi cant coeffi cients and INFLA enters with the predicted sign and signifi cant coeffi cients in the majority of the cases.The dummy variable (D1) suggests that Commonwealth of Independent States countries, in comparison with other transition countries, have fi nancial systems where banks have a smaller role in fi nancial intermediation than central banks and they do not mobilize and pool savings, although they have less bank concentration.Buiter and Taci (2003) point out that, CIS countries developed many nonviable private banks in the early 1990s and they created reforms to sustain their interests and prevent the success of these banks.In addition, their stock exchanges are inactive, small, illiquid, and practically only obligations of the government are traded (Russia is clearly an exception) and the stock markets are dominated by a small number of large fi rms in such sectors as banking, electric power, natural resource and telecommunications.According to these facts, D1 has a negative sign and signifi cant coeffi cient in the case of STTR.

FINANCIAL INTEGRATION AND FINANCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Equation [3] shows the transformation of the model [1], to use as a measure of fi nancial globalization the indicator Intere (integration of real interest rate).
Table 2 presents the main results.The measure of fi nancial integration enters with predicted sign and statistically signifi cant coeffi cients in the cases of PCFS, FSD and SAVE, that is to say, fi nancial integration promotes credit and mobilizes and pools savings.Also, Intere does not have the predicted sign and statistically signifi cant coeffi cient at the 1% level with Informa, therefore, fi nancial integration encourages bank concentration (consequently with poor information about market conditions).Financial integration has no signifi cant relationship with other indicators.
XM does not have the predicted sign and signifi cant coeffi cients in the cases of FSD, STTV, Informa and SAVE.For a second time, GDP has few signifi cant coeffi cients and INFLA enters with the predicted sign and signifi cant coeffi cients in the majority of the cases.1995-2008 1995-2008 1995-2008 1995-2008 1995-2008 1995-2008 1995-2008 1995-2008 1995-2008 1995 Regressions are estimated using the Dynamic GMM estimator (Blundell and Bond, 1998) The dummy variable once more suggests that CIS countries, in comparison with other transition countries, have fi nancial systems where banks have a smaller role in fi nancial intermediation than central banks.Buiter and Taci (2003: 20) found that "the state still maintains a high degree of control over the banking sector, with the exception of Armenia, Kazakhstan and Tajikistan… The issue of government-directed lending is pervasive in these countries".But they do not favor bank concentration.
It is worth noticing, that CIS countries are characterized by macroeconomic and political instability, accompanied with corruption and limited legal system, with a low institutional development, with weak supervisory agencies and skills; obviously Russia is an exception in many aspects (see Buiter and Taci, 2003).
Both indicators of fi nancial globalization show poor evidence in favor of the main hypothesis.Financial globalization has a positive effect only on SAVE (the fourth function of the fi nancial system: to mobilize and pool savings), PCFS (private credit by deposit money banks and other fi nancial institutions over GDP) and FSD (fi nancial system deposits over GDP).Furthermore, the capital fl ows support the stock market (STTV and STTR).However, fi nancial globalization has few and mixed effects on basic fi nancial functions.

CONCLUSIONS
Theoretically, fi nancial globalization can favor the growth and development of domestic fi nancial systems, because the best fi nancial practices can travel around the world through a process of catching up.
The empirical evidence about fi nancial globalization-fi nancial development nexus has grown considerably in the last ten years, however, indicators of fi nancial development were not well related with the theory.This investigation, besides the typical indicators of credit and stock market, employed new indicators of fi nancial development related to basic fi nancial functions.The previous empirical results used samples with developed and underdeveloped countries, and found positive impacts on the fi nancial development of fi nancial globalization; but in samples of underdeveloped countries the evidence is not supported.In the same sense, the results of this investigation suggest that in transition countries it is not possible to fi nd strong evidence of positive impacts, except for the credit market.At least, also it is not possible to argue a negative impact.The results are strong to a big range of alternative measures.
An interesting result is that trade openness favors fi nancial systems where the banks have a larger role in fi nancial intermediation than central banks.For that reason it is possible to expect strong corporate governance in transition countries.But also it encourages bank concentration; consequently it produces poor information about market conditions.This result supports the hypothesis of Hymer (1976) who argued that foreign investments arise from oligopolistic or monopolistic fi rms, which look for investments to conserve a non-competitive market structure.Furthermore, this is not a good evidence to support the hypothesis of Rajan and Zingales (2003), who argue that openness, either fi nancial or trade, favors fi nancial development.
Capital fl ows are the measure of fi nancial globalization that enter better in the model; therefore, for policy makers in transition countries the advice is to carry out a strong integration and in the same time expand their policies of liberalization and facilitate the free fl ows of capital (their levels are lower than in developed countries), like previous empirical studies suggest.On the other hand, one could argue that it is possible to wait until these countries get a developed fi nancial system, and later to facilitate the openness processes, that will enhance the fi nancial development.
Future research must help to fi nd other determinants of fi nancial development in transition countries, and indicate which conditions are required to get positive impacts from fi nancial globalization.Some investigations suggest that institutional framework is a key determinant (see La Porta et al. 1998), and so it will be necessary to elaborate more sophisticated institutional indicators, because the current measures do not change signifi cantly in time and, by this reason they are not useful in empirical tests.Finally, it is necessary to point out that theoretical contribution about fi nancial globalization-fi nancial development nexus is supported on empirical studies, therefore, it is indispensable to develop a better theory.

Figure
Figure A1.Line graphics of means

Table 1
Financial development and gross private capital fl ows

Table 2
Financial development and integration of real interest rate